[MUSIC] Hi, again. In the last video we saw how early Christian authors perceived magic as a result of demonic intervention in the life of humans. That conception remained among theologians well into the 12th century. Magic adopted different forms, which Isidore of Seville, following the Roman scholar Varro, among others, had listed as geomancy, hydromancy, aeromancy, and pyromancy, that is divination by earth, water, air and fire; together with the divinatorial observation of birds, entrails, stars and planets (what we could call astrology), enchantments and other phenomena. These categories would also remain standard until the 12th century. The 13th century would bring about several changes. First, some authors started to differentiate natural magic from its demonic counterpart. Among them, we find the influential William of Auvergne, who was bishop of Paris, and the famous Albert the Great, also known as Saint Albert the Great, who happens to be the current patron saint of experimental sciences. The second major change affecting 13th-century theologians was the rise of a new kind of knowledge that included scientific astrology and alchemy. One of the following units of this course will be devoted to these disciplines. Suffice it to say here that the new learning claimed to be the heir to ancient philosophy and science, and seemed to be more rigorous and advanced. The rise of universities out of earlier cathedral schools, and the importation of Arabic learning, which included the transmission of Aristotelian philosophy and science, deeply affected the intellectual life of Europe in this period. But the astrologers and alchemists of the 12th century would not have considered themselves as magicians, although their opponents saw them as such. They would end up seeing themselves as practitioners of natural magic only around the end of the Middle Ages. However, even before that, many people still thought that all magic was unquestionably demonic; and, in fact, when they discussed the occult powers of nature, they didn't always use the term "magic" to refer to them. Thomas Aquinas himself, (again, St. Thomas Aquinas, interestingly enough the patron saint of scholars), believed in occult phenomena caused by the stars and planets, but reserved "magic" for circumstances that involved the intervention of demons. He dealt with these issues in his <i>Summa Against the Gentiles</i>. The thing is that, according to him, most kinds of magic had to do with demons in the end. So, even if magicians seemed to read the stars or use herbs, they had to be in contact with some sort of rational being who would aid them in accomplishing all kinds of things by granting them knowledge usually beyond the grasp of any normal human being. Enchantments, invocations, strange characters, and such were clearly addressed to intelligent supernatural beings, who had to be evil and therefore, demons. If early Christian authors had already warned about the invocation of demons when the fear of magic became almost obsession at the end of the Middle Ages, the concerns and exhortations of churchmen increased. But ascribing too much power to demons was a risky business in itself. How could theologians attribute to them the power to change one creature into another, or to foresee the future without invading God's personal territory? On the other hand, underestimating demonic influences was every bit as dangerous. The result was that, by the end of Middle Ages, virtually all types of magic were related to demons. Charms, words, and gestures, all of them deeply rooted popular customs, were rebuked as <i>superstitio</i>, as you saw in the previous unit. But by the late Middle Ages, <i>superstitio</i>, even if it did not involve demons directly,could also be inspired by them, as were all sins. The remnants of what had first been pagan customs and, much later, seen as natural magic phenomena (such as rituals related to wells and springs, offerings, curses, and even medicinal herbs), were quickly associated to demons, and the men and women who performed them fell immediately under suspicion. Both secular and ecclesiastical authorities kept issuing legislation against magic throughout the Middle Ages. We saw some of it in our last video. Penalties were varied, but whereas secular laws were usually related to the harm caused by magic, the Church was usually more concerned with the offence against God. However, churchmen and secular authorities alike had little effect in the actual the decline of the exercise of magic. And when Franciscan and Dominican friars became popular preachers in the 13th century, condemnation of magic was still one of the most recurrent topics in their sermons. For example, that is the case of the Franciscan Bernardino of Siena, a missionary, also canonized, who must have been pretty good at his job for he has become the patron saint of advertising. In any case, if the laws against magic were basically the same during the whole medieval period, the 13th century would witness a great development in the most efficient method to persecute and prosecute magic. And medieval inquisitors, whose primary goal was to persecute heretics, would lay the foundations for what was to come. See you in our next video! [MUSIC]